Historical Context
The Long March (1934–1935) is one of the most iconic events in Chinese history. Spanning over 6,000 miles through some of China’s most challenging and remote landscapes, the march was not only a military retreat but also a crucial moment in the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) struggle for survival. The retreat ultimately played a pivotal role in ensuring the survival of the Communist movement and establishing Mao Zedong as its undisputed leader (Salisbury, 1985).
Origins of the Conflict
By the end of 1934, the CCP faced near-total annihilation. The Kuomintang (KMT), led by Chiang Kai-shek, had launched a series of “encirclement campaigns” aimed at destroying the Communist stronghold in the Jiangxi Soviet, an area in southeastern China that had been under CCP control since 1931. Despite initial successes, the CCP forces, led by Zhou Enlai, Peng Dehuai, and others, were besieged and faced overwhelming pressure from the KMT’s superior numbers and firepower. With their base about to fall, the Communist leadership made a fateful decision: they would abandon Jiangxi and embark on a forced retreat to the northwest, hoping to regroup and establish a new base in the Shaanxi region (Snow, 1937).
The Arduous Journey
Challenges and Survival
The Long March was defined by its extreme hardships and the resilience required to survive it:
- Length and Terrain: The march covered roughly 6,000 miles (not 4,000) through difficult terrains including mountain ranges, marshes, rivers, and vast grasslands, often at high altitudes. The marchers faced extreme physical and environmental challenges, including cold winters, flooding, and scorching heat in the summer (Salisbury, 1985).
- Diminishing Numbers: The march began with approximately 86,000 troops and support personnel, but by the time the survivors reached their destination in Shaanxi in 1935, only about 7,000-8,000 had made it through. The toll from battles, disease, starvation, and exhaustion was catastrophic (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
- Combat and Attrition: The Communists were constantly harassed by KMT forces, and there were numerous engagements with the enemy. The marchers also faced attacks from warlords, local militias, and even hostile weather conditions (Snow, 1937).
- Logistical Struggles: The retreat was made even more difficult by shortages of food, medical supplies, and basic equipment. The Communist forces had to rely on guerrilla tactics and the support of sympathetic local populations to survive (Salisbury, 1985).
Strategic Transformation
During the Long March, the CCP underwent significant changes that would shape its future success:
- Shift to Guerrilla Warfare: The retreat marked a strategic shift for the CCP, from conventional military engagements to smaller, more mobile guerrilla tactics. This change would become a hallmark of Communist military strategy during the subsequent Chinese Civil War (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
- Political Organization: The leadership of the CCP was reorganized during the march, and Mao Zedong’s influence began to grow, particularly through his military strategies and ability to maintain morale under dire circumstances (Salisbury, 1985).
- Relationships with Ethnic Minorities: As they moved through diverse regions of China, the Communist forces worked to establish alliances with local ethnic minority groups, which helped bolster their ranks and support base (Snow, 1937).
- Ideological Consolidation: The march was also a crucible in which the ideological foundations of the CCP were solidified. The hardship and sacrifice endured by the marchers became a source of revolutionary legitimacy, shaping the Party’s future identity (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
Mao Zedong’s Emergence
Before the Long March, Mao Zedong was not yet the dominant figure in the CCP. He was a relatively marginal leader compared to figures like Zhou Enlai or Li Lisan. However, Mao’s ability to navigate internal Party rivalries, combined with his leadership during the march, played a crucial role in his rise to power:
- Strategic Leadership: Mao’s understanding of the situation, and his ability to make bold decisions, such as forging ahead through perilous terrain when others advocated for retreat, helped establish him as a capable leader in the eyes of many within the CCP (Salisbury, 1985).
- Defeating Rivals: Mao’s leadership during the Long March allowed him to outmaneuver key political rivals, such as Zhang Guotao and Wang Ming, both of whom had different strategies for the CCP’s survival. By the end of the march, Mao had consolidated power and gained the loyalty of the majority of the Party’s military and political leaders (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
- The Creation of a Revolutionary Hero: Mao’s persona was forged during the Long March as a symbol of resilience, toughness, and unyielding revolutionary spirit. This image of the “heroic leader” would become central to his later political narrative and the CCP’s ideological formation (Snow, 1937).
Political and Ideological Significance
The Long March was more than just a military retreat—it became the bedrock of CCP mythology and a defining moment in the Party’s rise to power. Its significance can be seen in the following ways:
- Founding Mythology: The Long March was immortalized in CCP propaganda as a symbol of perseverance, unity, and revolutionary resolve. It became central to the Party’s historical narrative, shaping the collective memory of the Chinese people and inspiring future generations of Communists (Salisbury, 1985).
- Party Unity and Identity: Despite the immense physical and emotional toll of the journey, the Long March helped foster a deep sense of shared struggle and commitment among the Communist forces. This unity would prove critical in the years that followed, particularly during the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949) (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
- Legitimacy of the CCP: The Long March demonstrated the CCP’s resilience and its ability to endure against overwhelming odds. By surviving, the Communists proved that they were not only capable of fighting the KMT but also of outlasting them. This strengthened the Party’s legitimacy in the eyes of both the Chinese people and the international community (Snow, 1937).
Conclusion
The Long March, which ended in Shaanxi Province in October 1935, was a decisive turning point in the history of modern China. While it was initially a military retreat from the KMT, it ultimately set the stage for the CCP’s victory in the Chinese Civil War and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
More than just a physical journey, the Long March was a profound ideological and organizational transformation for the Communist Party. It was a defining moment that reshaped the political and social landscape of China for generations to come, and the memory of it remains a cornerstone of Maoist thought and CCP propaganda to this day (Chang & Halliday, 2005).
Recommended Historical Sources:
- Salisbury, Harrison E. The Long March: The Untold Story. (1985)
- Chang, Jung, and Halliday, Jon. Mao: The Unknown Story. (2005)
- Snow, Edgar. Red Star Over China. (1937)
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